Although the established essayists position themselves on not having the need to adopt a methodology in the preparation of an essay, it was decided to maintain this section, which aims to present the reader with some concepts and the uniqueness of the theoretical essay, as well as to clarify the choice of this type of text. It was understood that the logic of argument of an essay should also be present in its structure.
An interesting approach to the essay and that served as a reference for the elaboration of this work is presented by Meneghetti Meneghetti, F. Besides the theoretical study, another guiding aspect of this essay was its multidisciplinary approach, in this case, the Organizational Memory and Information Systems. Therefore, by not introducing the empiricism of traditional papers, it is hoped that the dialogue and reflections presented here can somehow entice the reader into a further reflection and, perhaps, to continue the discussion herein initiated.
This chapter presents an overview of the evolution of the concepts of Human Memory, extending the concepts of Organizational Memory and Information Systems, with emphasis on ERPs. Nairne ed. Roediger, III , pp. New York: Psychology Press.
According to those authors, philosophers have written about memory problems since years ago and psychologists have studied empirically the questions related to memory for over years. The memory is an important and complex cognitive process, which can be defined as a process consisting of three mechanisms: storage, retention and access.
While those mechanisms are considered sequential, they are, in fact, interdependent. That is, how the content has been stored can influence the retention, the access depends on which types of retention are activated, and so forth Baddeley, Baddeley, A.
Madrid: McGrawhill. The memory can be natural or artificial. As Simon Simon, A. The Quarterly Journal of Economics , v. This type of memory assumes a representative role for organizations in the form of Information Systems. Over time, various models have been proposed to study human memory. It is a theme constantly revised in view of the findings in the areas of neuroscience, progressively more accessible due to the increasing sophistication of research methods in the area.
A model commonly adopted, based on neuropsychological research, shows how memory can be divided into two basic types: declarative and non-declarative Sternberg, Sternberg, R. Porto Alegre: Artmed. Moreover, memory is defined in two ways: by retention time and by its contents Davidoff, Davidoff, L.
There are also proposals that human memory can be explained by a connectionist model that shows the activation of parallel processing. The criticism that is made to this model point out that it fails to explain mechanisms for recalling single episodes, for example Sternberg, Sternberg, R. What can be said is that human memory is maintained by various cognitive and neural systems, different in terms of quality of the information stored and how it is encoded and evoked.
It relates to emotions, to learning mechanisms and suffers losses associated to the human development Oliveira, Oliveira, A. From what has been presented so far, to develop a unique model of human memory presents itself as a relatively difficult task.
One justification for this is that the knowledge about human memory is evolving fast mainly by the contribution of Psychology and Neuroscience. However, a model Figure 1 developed by Alan Baddeley - Professor of Psychology - is widely accepted by these two scientific communities.
Figure 1 : Representation of Human Memory. Observing the model in Figure 1 reveals that human memory consists of three other memory types, namely: 1 Sensory memory very fast and retains the stimuli received 2 Working Memory stores information that will be the basis for reasoning and learning 3 Long Term Memory information to be used indefinitely.
Together, these memories enable humans to adapt to their environment, to achieve the proposed goals, knowledge integration and patterns maintenance — a human ability that accelerates the interpretation of new events based on past experiences. Addis Constructive Memory: the ghosts of past and future, Nature, , pp. A practical example of this capability occurs when presenting to a group of people, for a certain period of time, a list of words related to a given context, eg: tired, bed, awake, sleep, dream, night, blanket, napping, sleep, snoring pillow, yawning, peace and sleepy.
After finishing the session, when asked participants to recognize a few words; some participants correctly identify the word pillow, some confirm that the door was not present; however, some respondents cite words that were not on the original list, but they were associated with the initial context, for example, the word sleep. Similarly, a system based on constructive principles can extract, recombine and reassemble events that never occurred.
One clue comes from studies indicating that memory errors can present evidence of an adaptive functioning, rather than faulty processes. In: Memory Studies , v. Each of these disciplines contributes a distinct vocabulary of terms and acronyms, interconnected to some degree or form in generic features and conceptual frameworks. Since the studies of memory comprehend multiple disciplines, methods and used techniques, they can also be quite diverse.
Those studies include basic research in the humanities, the careful examination of primary historical sources and documentary studies as well as case studies, interviews, questionnaires and eyewitness reports of the social sciences Tulving, Tulving, E.
It is expected that different types of inferences can be made from various applications of these techniques. For the authors, such an understanding is a sine qua to the success of this challenge that is to study memory. No doubt this is a great opportunity for students of computer science, given the development of cybernetics in recent decades.
Thus, systematize and improve the methodological foundations for studies in the field are prerequisites for progress on cumulative memory. A similar approach can be taken in relation to the theoretical and conceptual questions. Scholars interested in studies of memory and collective memory, often uncritically borrow terms of studies of human memory Wertsch, Wertsch, J. New York: Cambridge University Press.
According to the author, it is necessary to adopt well-defined criteria, because such approaches are often the best simplifications, the best and the worst caricatures. As seen so far, studies of human memory, present as a complex field and the wide variety of approaches that can be used, make it difficult to use a general theory for explaining a given phenomenon linked to memory. Thus, in addition to the careful choice of methods to be used, it becomes necessary to use appropriate cutouts or theoretical approaches, such as those presented by neuroscience and computer science, which are the case of this theoretical essay.
Historically, the concepts of Organizational Memory OM followed the concepts related to human memory, which indicates that human memory has been used as a metaphor to refer to the organizational memory, even if implicitly. Given the difficulty presenting a model for human memory, it was expected that the same difficulty occurred in the representation of organizational memory, since, in theory, it should provide functions similar to human memory.
Ungson Organizational memory. Academy of Management Review, 16 1 , pp. In: Academy of Management Review , v. In: Information Technology Management , v. In: Organization Studies , v. In addition, some authors argue that information about the past can be stored by organizations in multiple ways Douglas, Douglas, M. When researchers of the organization science have adopted the term memory, they imported the same meanings associated to the concept of human memory and applied them to organizations.
However, these meanings and implications should be explained so that it is possible to understand if in fact they apply to organizations. Thus, the "memory" remains one of the central concepts of the theory of information processing. The challenging issue is the implementation of the concepts of human memory for the study of organizational memory. This is why, although their basic structures are completely different, which are trying to see whether the same features occur in both.
The use of metaphors allows the researcher to establish a bridge between two different concepts in nature, but similar in their functions. Thus, its importance is closely linked to the development of systems capable of capturing what should be archived, to categorize stored knowledge representations, to establish mechanisms that facilitate the connection of these contents to human knowledge, favoring the creation of new knowledge, to facilitate the process of knowledge sharing and to allow for the recovery of knowledge representations for decision and human action support.
Containers retention facilities are mechanisms of memory retention, which transform information into something different, such as: knowledge, processes, experience, shared understandings, routines, etc. Figure 2 : Organizational Memory Structure. The borders and the center of the organizational memory structure proposed by Walsh and Ungson Walsh, J.
Information Retention : The information and decisions can be stored in different locations, such as: individuals, adopted procedures, protocols, furniture arrangements, technological devices, etc. Pondy and Mitroff Pondy, L. Staw Ed. Information Retrieval : in the day-to-day organizations, a lot of information used by individuals in their analyses are retrieved from organizational memory. Such retrieval can occur in a controlled manner, or automatically Langer, Langer, E.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. It should be noted, that in the model of Walsh and Ungson Walsh, J. Although the authors speak on information, it is important to emphasize that the individuals, culture, structure, transformation, ecology and information are converted into knowledge, shared knowledge and knowledge representations. The authors attribute some properties related to information and retained decisions, as seen in Table 1.
Walsh and Ungson 61 Walsh, J. However, because it was a seminal work, which is still regarded as a classic by the authors, who cited it over articles, it is also natural that the model has been object of much criticism. Zwass and Stein Stein, E. By connecting the unfamiliar to the familiar, the brain more easily is able to learn and remember the unfamiliar.
Association is very effective for learning and remembering vocabulary words. When you are given a new vocabulary word to memorize, write it down, and then the definition next to it. Now write a person, place, thing, event or movie that you're familiar with next to the word, or combine them in a sentence to create a strong association. For example, "My uncle is an ardent democrat".
Ardent meaning intensely devoted. All students cram for tests at one time or another. Although many people cram right before tests, it is not an effective long-term learning or memorization strategy. It is very difficult to retain information long-term from one or two cramming sessions. The key to memory retention is to frequently review notes and other study materials weeks or days before tests. If possible, review notes immediately following lectures and jot down or highlight information that will probably show up on a test.
You should also adapt this strategy after completing textbook reading assignments by reviewing information you highlight and chapter headings. Through repetitive review and study, you will eventually begin to retain the information being learned. By integrating data, information and material into a vivid story that you can tell, you'll be able to memorize and recall information in any subject.
When developing a story for the purpose of enhancing your memory of information, focus on the key learning points and organize them within the story in a logical sequence.
Why is storytelling such a powerful memorization strategy? Because each event in the story triggers your memory of the next event, so your ability to memorize information is as limitless as your ability to create, remember and tell a story.
Believe it or not, talking is a very powerful—and underutilized—strategy for improving memory. How does it work? Just talk! Talk about what you've learned. Talk about the information you need to remember. Sit down with your Mom, Dad, brother, sister or friend and tell them what you've learned. Then sit down with someone and describe in detail how the Kreb Cycle works. Want to learn history? Then discuss, debate and argue history with someone else.
Want to improve your Spanish? Then talk Spanish with someone who will listen—or find a fluent Spanish speaker who will listen to you.
Many people use mnemonic devices to remember specific details from lectures and reading. Mnemonic devices work by relating facts with short phrases, words that rhyme, or anything else an individual is familiar with. For example, if an important definition that will appear on a test rhymed with the last name of your favorite movie star, you could use this mnemonic device to remember the word.
Another powerful mnemonic device for improving ability to remember important information and details is the use of acronyms. An acronym is a word composed of the first letters of a list of words. You take the list of words that you want to memorize and put them in an order so that the first letters of each word spell a real or made-up word that is easy to remember. One of the all time most powerful mnemonic devices is music. Want to memorize something and never forget it? Learning curves in manufacturing.
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